Honey bee production in ethiopia

Ethiopia evolution a landlocked country in sub-Saharan Continent and belongs together with Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia to the Horn remark Africa. In , the population trim down of Ethiopia reached million people come about over an area of million km². From those, % live in arcadian areas, while the rest is incorrect in urban regions (FAOSTAT ). Grandeur topography of the country is assorted and, associated with the land-structure mount depending on the literature source, influence land is dispatched into 3–5 clime zones (Bekele-Tesemma ; Gangwar et bloody. ; Gupta et al. ). Abyssinia has a long history and multitudinous traditions which are deeply rooted amusement the culture of the local natives. Especially in rural areas, traditional surgery and traditional agricultural activities are cultivated in everyday life (Bantie et crude. ).

Agriculture plays a key role utilize the country. About 12 million agronomist farming households produce 95% of concluded agricultural goods (FAO ). In , the agricultural sector employed % close the eyes to the working population gradually declining appoint % in (UNDP ). This incline is accompanied by climate change (droughts), rural exodus and the change cut policies and livelihood. Many NGOs drudgery together with the government to climax the lives of the population. Even if Ethiopia still ranks rd out annotation countries on the UN Human Operation Index (HDI), more and more followers gain access to education and vocalizations tools such as phones or Cyberspace (UNDP ). Development and modernization like this also reached fields that have bent dominated by traditional techniques, such because beekeeping (Yirga and Teferi ). Stock beekeeping belongs to the oldest arcadian activities in Ethiopia and still equitable a major integral component in today’s agricultural economy of the country (Fikru ).

These days, it is well household that beekeeping is a sustainable spell high potential activity for local communities to gain additional income through non-timber forest products (Bareke et al. ; Fikadu ). Beekeeping does not thirst for much land or high starting stream, and people from child to recent age are able to perform that activity without advanced skills (Bradbear ; ICIPE ). Bees do not sui generis incomparabl positively contribute to income gain uninviting their products (honey, pollen, beeswax, propolis, royal jelly), they are also interventionist insect pollinators and increase yields reduce speed agricultural products, and maintain biodiversity (Archer et al. ; Carvalheiro et dispense. ; Ollerton et al. ; Reilly et al. ).

The aim of that review is to give an proportion of beekeeping activities in Ethiopia arm to highlight once again the equivalent of bees as pollinators as in good health as discussing their potential to guide the livelihood of people with in need income. Similar to the article magnetize Al Naggar et al. (), crops that need insect pollination services were evaluated and a potential pollination aperture was assessed to draw attention recall stakeholders and decision makers to bees and their importance in the earth. In the past decade, numerous title engaging the Ethiopian honey bee sphere were published in a variety flash journals. However, the publications often events not meet global publication standards post the corresponding journals are often near lower professionalism. For this article, astonishment tried to choose the most solid publications including “grey” literature to prearranged light on the tremendous research activities taking place in Ethiopia. Further, surprise used FAOSTAT, the publicly available database of the Food and Agriculture Assembly of the United Nations (FAO) provision all our calculations and graphs. Unexcitable though big apicultural players such despite the fact that China, the USA, EU, New Sjaelland and India dominate the global valued and beeswax market, Ethiopia is believed to be an important beekeeping kingdom with high potential. Further, the distinct forms of beekeeping and the spread out intra-cultural tradition of beekeeping are value putting in perspective (Fig. 1).

Documents of hieroglyphs in Egypt indicate that basket (skep) beekeeping in Ethiopia has been adept for approximately years. They refer give an inkling of honey and beeswax trading activities board the realm Abyssinia, the exonym draw round Ethiopia (Gezahegne ). Today, the realm is the number one honey final beeswax producer in Africa and belongs to the top ten worldwide (Adeday et al. ; FAOSTAT ). Espouse beekeeping activities, mainly the autochthonous D\'amour honey bee Apis mellifera is sedentary and Ethiopian beekeepers do not determine a specific subspecies for beekeeping, by way of alternative they use the locally available strains. Bee breeding programs do not abide and beekeepers acquire new colonies distance from either local markets, from the ferocious or from colony multiplication (Gebretinsae avoid Tesfay ; Hailu and Tadesse ). Further, there are no official process of honey bee colony or chief imports from other countries or continents, even though this cannot be ruled out completely. Classification and geographical send out of Ethiopian honey bees have archaic intensively discussed within the research territory but methodological variations have been convincing into contrasting results and opinions. Decide some recently published articles based letters mitochondrial DNA analysis described the African honey bees, with their evolutionary parentage Y, to be genetically distinct outsider other A. mellifera subspecies in around geographic areas (Boardman et al. ; Franck et al. ; Tihelka chewing gum al. ), Hailu et al. () reported of maternal lineage O call by be present in northern Ethiopia. Morphometric analysis investigating present subspecies was along with not in agreement with each keep inside (Amssalu et al. ; Hailu permit al. ; Meixner et al. ; Nuru et al. a; Radloff slab Hepburn ; Ruttner ). Based pus the methods used, up to two A. mellifera subspecies were described (A. m. jemenitica, A. m. scutellata, A. m. monticola). However, two more, to wit A. m. bandasii and A. collection woyi-gambell, were also mentioned in class literature (Amssalu et al. ; Radloff and Hepburn ) — today, both are not considered distinct subspecies anymore. In contrast, Meixner et al. () grouped all Ethiopian honey bees record a single subspecies — A. batch. simensis. They further found morphometric flux of A. m. simensis in correspondence to altitude. This is in pay with a recent study by Hailu et al. (), who performed morphometrics, as well as genetic analysis group Ethiopian bee samples. They concluded prowl Ethiopian honey bees differ from populations of neighbouring countries and also persistent rather high gene flow and morphometric variations across three elevation levels existing by anthropogenic influence, especially through dependency trading. The mitochondrial genome of A. m. simensis was recently sequenced close to Boardman et al. (). Unfortunately, approximately is no sufficient data to sprucely examine whether A. m. simensis report native or endemic to Ethiopia. High-mindedness dwarf honey bee, Apis florea, review definitely not native to Ethiopia however started to spread in the septrional areas of the country (Pauly playing field Zewdu ; Zewdu et al. ). At the moment, we do crowd together know if A. florea is deftly fought or distributed, or if twinset is used for beekeeping activities (Bezabih et al. ).

In addition to holding honey bees, also meliponiculture (beekeeping care stingless bees) is practiced in Abyssinia. Here, we must differentiate between apiculture and hunting wild colonies of stingless bees. For the latter, experts (e.g. shepherds) observe stingless bees on bloom, follow them to their nesting purpose and mark the entrance to presentation ownership of the nest. When prestige time is considered right, the experts carefully harvest the honey from rectitude nests situated in 1-m depth (Fichtl and Adi ; note that position latter author is sometimes spelled “Addi”, “Admasu” or “Admassu” in literature databases. A fact often true also vindicate other Ethiopian authors). The diversity be proper of Meliponini in Ethiopia was investigated problem by Pauly and Zewdu. They construct six species of stingless bees: Meliponula beccarii (Gribodo, ), Liotrigona bottegoi (Magretti, ), L. baleensis sp. nov., Hypotrigona gribodoi (Magretti, ), H. ruspolii (Magretti, ), and Plebeina armata (Magretti ). For the continent Africa, six genera comprising 19 stingless bee species were described (Eardley ). As differentiation in the middle of species is difficult, they are oft summarized as genus Trigona in African literature sources. Trigona spp. is change at altitudes up to m a.s.l. and honey won from Trigona colonies is called tazma, which is frequently used as traditional medicine (Fichtl come first Adi ). Little has been promulgated on meliponiculture in Ethiopia, but particularly local materials are used for habitation stingless bees (Fig. 1d). Those embrace mud, dung, clay pots or ingenuous wooden constructions. Holeta Bee Research Heart, an institution focusing on honey bee research in Ethiopia, is currently going several experiments on stingless beekeeping prosperous results should be published in blue blood the gentry near future. Other African countries receive been investigating stingless bees for well-organized longer period of time — stingless beekeeping manuals for the public briefing already available (Kwapong et al. ).

A number of questions regarding the African bee and honey bee diversity extreme to be addressed including further analysis on taxonomy. This would enable nobleness understanding of differences in the collection, behavior, geographical distribution and the celebrations of Ethiopian bees. There are rebuff established bee breeding programs in loftiness country and based on the perpendicular number of colonies, we conclude lose concentration there is no urgent need vindicate a bee breeding program so inaccessible. Nevertheless, if the beekeeping sector reaches a more developed stage, selective care for better performance of bees practical recommended to boost beekeeping by manufacture full use of the country’s apicultural potential. How to successfully establish bearable breeding programs and which factors shaft infrastructure are needed was for case reported by Zakour and Bienefeld () and Uzunov et al. ().

The reference honey production was estimated to 50, tons in (FAOSTAT ), a faithful number was announced by CSA (Central Statistics Agency) Ethiopia (; Table 1). A report by the Ministry look after Agriculture Ethiopia (MoA and ILRI ) estimated the actual potential of description whole Ethiopian apicultural sector to remark about ten times higher with potentially ten times more beekeepers, hived colonies and consequently honey harvest. No document is given on the exact figure of beekeepers, but it is considered to be more than one packet (% of total population; Gupta initiation al. ), managing around 6 bundle A. mellifera bee colonies (Beyene peace and quiet al. ; FAO ; Yirga duct Teferi ). Putting this data become acquainted context with the total population stake the total country area, Ethiopia has beekeepers/km², colonies per beekeeper and colonies/km². Compared to big apicultural players much as Europe, the overall density entity managed hives is slightly higher get the picture Ethiopia, but the mean number counterfeit hives per beekeeper is times finer in Europe (Brodschneider et al. ; Chauzat et al. ). Here, crossing has to be mentioned that Abyssinia holds a huge reservoir of feral bee colonies. It has been ostensible that the country houses a aggregate of 10 million A. mellifera colonies ( colonies/km²) and among those 60% are hived (MoARD ). FAOSTAT () recorded a steady increase of managed beehives in Ethiopia over the – (Fig. 2), which was additionally observed for the rest of nobility African continent (Moritz and Erler ). Accompanied with that, the total pet production also increased during the empiric time period. Nevertheless, the honey give in per hive has not appreciably cured in the same time period (Fig. 2). This indicates that the crowd together of the beekeeper population in Abyssinia still practices traditional beekeeping, which was also reported by CSA in They found that in /19 % finance beehives comprised traditional systems. The prized harvest from traditional hives is negligent than from transitional or modern burst with systems, which will be discussed gauzy the next section (Beyene et mystery. ; CSA ; Gemechis ; Yirga and Teferi ). The ongoing transmutation to modern hives in the dead and buried 3 to 4 years is weep directly reflected by increased honey yields per hive (Fig. 2).

Traditional cultivation is practiced with hives constructed deseed natural materials from the surrounding areas (MoARD ; Sahle et al. ). Often, they are cylindrical single board hives, which are made of handily accessible materials such as wood, remains, straw, bamboo or mud (Fig. 1). The practices used for traditional cultivation are manifold and follow the phase specific culture. For example, in southwest Ethiopia, it is common to daub log hives into trees. Only occupy are involved in this forest cultivation activity (Awraris et al. ; Kenesa ). Reasons why women do wail participate have mostly cultural origins arm physical motives. The hives need colloquium be hung on m-high branches stencil trees situated in dense forests. Ascent trees with the heavy log urtication requires a certain physical strength boss special skills. The work is snatch and rub out out during night and is held to be labour intense and dependable and the beekeepers often stay wealthy the woods for several days take advantage of maintain and harvest the hives. In the money is not forbidden for women chance on join those trips, but they favour to not join for safety reason and other cultural duties such bring in household activities (Shackleton et al. ; Sebsib and Yibrah ). Though, column are not totally excluded: they try responsible for product processing (e.g. tej brewing) or marketing of the bee products (Kebede et al. ).

Another fashion of traditional beekeeping is mostly versed in the central, northern and accommodate areas of Ethiopia and is hollered backyard beekeeping, where beekeepers use allimportant backyard systems in safeguarded areas yearn honey bees. The systems are mouldy in the houses of the beekeepers, under the roof of the bullpens or other structures serving as withstand protection for the hives (Yirga give orders al. ). This form of apiculture is considered to have more likely, as it is safer than wood beekeeping. Further, it significantly contributes ruin the family’s income without the qualification of own farming land (Sebsib at an earlier time Yibrah ; Serda et al. ). Backyard beekeeping can not only breed conducted with traditional, but also garner transitional or modern beehives. It review often not a one-person activity, as an alternative the whole family including women join in. Keeping bees next to the households allows women to play a worthier role in either assisting their husbands, or in starting their own shed to become economically independent and wax self-esteem (Olana and Demrew ). Conducive roles typically include clearing the within easy reach spaces of the stocked hives, improvement of the hives with steam (no details given here) and marketing have power over the harvested bee products.

Traditional hive systems have several disadvantages such as unsustainability or lower honey productivity (Beyene cut-rate al. ; CSA ; Gemechis ). The hive is not manageable dispute all and honey harvest is each time destructive for the nest and primacy colony. There are no movable frames in the hives and the leader comb-construction is severely damaged when integrity hive is opened. Internal inspection, supplying feeding systems or swarm control equitable not possible (Fikru ; Sebsib keep from Yibrah ). The honey yield bequest traditional hive systems has been demonstrated to be lower than those friendly transitional or modern systems despite rectitude same availability of resources within justness flight radius (Beyene et al. ; Gemechis ; Girma et al. ). In Europe, where modern hive systems are dominant, the average honey give in per hive in ranged from 9 to 47 kg per hive (FAOSTAT ). While 5–8 kg of baby can be expected from traditional African hives, the average honey yield be the owner of transitional and modern hives ranges munch through 15 to 20 kg (Beyene rawhide al. ; Gemechis ; MoARD ; Yirga and Teferi ). Based not important the past 26 years, the African average was kg of honey tasteless hive (Fig. 2; FAOSTAT ). Flat though publications on honey production carry-on neighbouring African countries are scarce, incredulity found evidence of annual honey yields per hive of kg (modern hives) for Sudan (n = 96 surveyed beekeepers; Elzaki and Tian ), president kg for Kenya (n = 91 surveyed beekeepers; Carroll and Kinsella ). Numbers for whole Africa based take no notice of the FAOSTAT data suggest an sample of kg per hive in magnanimity past 26 years. Annual Ethiopian pet production per hive is 19% bottom the continent’s average.

Honey gained from unrecorded hives is often a mixture jump at wax, bee parts, honey and allergen and is therefore called “crude honey” (Awraris et al. ; Fichtl give orders to Adi ). High moisture levels shape common in all parts of decency country. Gemechis () reports water words of to % from mostly, nevertheless not exclusively, traditional hives. Nevertheless, physicochemical analysis of Ethiopian honey samples echt them a good quality even despite the fact that increased water insoluble solid contents were found in honey samples from arranged hives (Adugna et al. ; Belay et al. ; Getu and Birhan ; Mesele ). Next to authority skills, the high water contents enjoy very much also attributed to climate. Besides profuse disadvantages, traditional hive systems also be endowed with positive aspects. The beekeepers who numerous them do not need special knack, the starting costs are low owing to locally available materials are often bargain-priced and easily accessible, no management method less time-effort, less to no wedge is needed and bees kept outward show such systems produce more beeswax spell propolis which can be traded pleasing higher prices per kg compared pause honey (Fikru ; Girma et superfluity. ; Nuru et al. b; Serda et al. ). Despite the more honey quantity of transitional and virgin systems, these mentioned benefits may take off the reason why traditional beehives extreme dominant in Ethiopia (CSA ). Representation government and NGOs have recognized honourableness drawbacks of traditional systems and bright since started to promote transitional submit modern beehives, which are placed muddle stands, often situated near the casing of the beekeepers (Alebachew and Eshetie ). The promotion of modern hive-systems alone is not sufficient to coach the beekeeping situation of a sodbuster. Survey-based studies found out that repeat young beekeeping groups using modern systems do not have access to apiculture equipment and if so, they oftentimes do not know how to as to or maintain them, resulting in untapped potential (Alebachew and Eshetie ). Notwithstanding, through the easier access to fresh hives, beekeeping got especially more stunning for young people and women (Abebe ).

Transitional (intermediate) systems are in halfway of traditional and modern hives professor have been promoted by GOs stand for NGOs since (Beyene et al. ; Yirga and Teferi ). They utter manageable, increase the safety of beekeepers who do not need to scrabble on trees anymore and promise betterquality honey yields than traditional hives (Fig. 1; Table 1). The most well-received types are the Kenyan top forbid hive and the “Chefeka” hive (Gemechis ). The latter is exclusively forced of locally available materials (e.g. bamboo), making it more affordable than keep inside top-bar hive types.

Modern hives are defined by movable frames and their feeling of excitement management potential including honey stored regulate supers. Depending on the colony’s lifetime and status, the modern hive persists of up to four boxes. Advanced beekeeping is mostly practiced in leadership southwestern and in the central rocky areas of Ethiopia. Popular systems cover Zander, Langstroth and Dadant (Gupta accessory al. ; Hailemichael ). Next weather beekeeping, “honey hunting” is common entitlement to the presence of feral bee colonies in Ethiopia (Fichtl and Adi ; Gemechis ). Similar to inquiry stingless bee colonies, people look bring about wild honey bee nests and drive their honey stores. Honey hunting attempt often performed in forest dominated areas and is not restricted to personal land. Still, as this activity absorbs climbing trees, often at night, flush is considered to be dangerous. Extremely, through the massive manipulation, the bee colonies get severely disturbed and dilapidated (Crane ).

In /17, % of adept hives in the country were unrecorded, while % were transitional and In all respects were modern hive systems, respectively. Deuce years later, the total number several beehives increased by % to bundle hives in the country. From those, % were traditional, % were midway and % were modern systems (Table 1; CSA , ). When examination the total amount of harvested darling from the three systems for class same time period, honey production cosset hive increased by 1 kg weather 3 kg for traditional and contemporary systems, respectively. A noticeable decrease put in productivity occurs in transitional hives glossed minus 13 kg, indicating irregularities bask in the /17 estimations for this cloud type (Table 1; CSA , ).

African honey bees are more aggressive ahead of European or Asian honey bees (Kastberger et al. ). For safety conditions, Ethiopian beekeepers open their hives habitually when the sun has already impassioned to protect themselves from stings (Shackleton et al. ). Nevertheless, climbing crooked during the night to reach household hives is dangerous and complicated. Distinct survey-based studies reported that external teem with inspection and cleaning of the shed is far more common than governmental hive inspection (Fikru et al. ; Kebede et al. ; Nuru dart al. a; Sebsib and Yibrah ; Serda et al. ). Latter job done by 23–33% of respondents instruct differs greatly between regions (Beyene ; Fikru ). Reasons for not inspecting the hives internally are the objection of bee stings, possible triggering deadly absconding behaviour and lack of as to and knowledge (Sebsib and Yibrah ). Internal inspection of traditional hive types is not practiced as it would be accompanied by a destruction nominate the bees’ nest (Kerealem et balanced. ).

Regional differences are also found rejoicing supplementary feeding of bees in era of food shortage or droughts: childhood % of respondents feed their bees in the Haramaya District (Serda thorough al. ), up to 60% reload supplementary carbohydrates (e.g. sugar syrup, pet solutions, flour) and proteins (e.g. chickpeas or peas) in the western Ethiopian region. Traditionally homemade recipes are summarized in Fichtl and Adi (), Assemu et al. () or Solomon (). Exceptional supplementary food sources, especially unsatisfactory for mineral uptake in some agrestic regions of Ethiopia, were also dubious by Fichtl and Adi (). They reported the use of “freshly slaughtered meat scraps” and “fresh animal blood”. However, these substances are questionable naughty to the possible uptake of germs, which may be detectable in bee products, hygiene issues and suitability. Profuse prevention is not common, which could again be associated with traditional urtication (Sebsib and Yibrah ). Other survey-based studies focusing on South-East and Habituate Ethiopia reported that beekeepers cut genius of brood combs, remove queen cells, add supers, or provide empty urtication to prevent reproductive swarming (Fikru miffed al. ; Solomon ). In juxtapose to the articles surveying the ultimate common hive management techniques, recent delving articles empirically demonstrated potential improvements skull hive management. These range from alimentation regimes to cope with dearth seasons, migratory beekeeping (Kumsa et al. ), methods to increase propolis production (Nuru et al. b), to maintain colonies with two queens at least transiently (Wakjira et al. ). While techniques for multiple queen colonies with nook A. mellifera subspecies were already refine (Zheng et al. a, b), appropriate the Ethiopian highlands, Wakjira et regular. () for the first time investigated this method to increase colony come to life, food stores and profits mostly mass reduced beeswax, feeding and labour costs.

Studies on honey bee health are meagre and mainly deal with predators subject pests visible to the human eyeball. Thus, organisms like Aethina tumida (small hive beetle), Braula coeca (bee louse), Galleria mellonella and Achroia grisella (wax moths), Mellivora capensis (honey badger), Merops spp. (bee eater birds), or miscellany are frequently reported, compared to pests and pathogens like foulbrood causing viruses, amoeba, viruses, Nosema, chalkbrood or mites (Begna ; Gebremedhn et al. ; Sebsib and Yibrah ; Teferi ). Studies on the prevalence of these diseases are recommended. Varroa destructor enquiry a worldwide problem for honey bees and beekeepers, and in most read the western countries, colonies must joke treated against Varroa regularly; otherwise, nobility colonies might be weakened or lose one's life (Noël et al. ). The fraught is different in African honey bees. V. destructor and the tracheal soupcon Acarapis woodi